【DSE Physics 課題二】Mechanics 力學|Motion|Force|Work|Momentum|Projectile|Circular|Gravitation

Table of Contents

Chapter 5 Motion

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Motion

Scalar and vector 標量與矢量

  • scalar: with magnitude only
    僅具有量值
  • vector: with magnitude and direction
    具有量值和方向

Vector addition 矢量相加

Vector addition

Note that the sum of the magnitudes of $$\overrightarrow{p}, \overrightarrow{q}$$ is not equal to the magnitude of the vector $$\overrightarrow{p}+\overrightarrow{q}$$

注意 $$\overrightarrow{p}, \overrightarrow{q}$$的量值之和並不等於矢量 $$\overrightarrow{p}+\overrightarrow{q}$$的量值。

Distance and displacement 距離與位移

Distance and displacement

distance travelled d:

path of a moving object (scalar)

行走距離d:

物體移動的路徑(標量)

displacement s:

change in position (vector)

位移s:

物體位置的變化(矢量)

unit: metre (m)單位:米 (m)

Speed and velocity 速率與速度

Speed and velocity

speed:

how fast an object moves (scalar)

average speed =

$$\frac{d_\mathrm{tot}}{t_\mathrm{tot}}$$

速率:

物體運動的快慢(標量)

平均速率=

$$\frac{d_\mathrm{tot}}{t_\mathrm{tot}}$$

velocity v:

change in s per unit time
(vector)

average velocity

$$\nu_{\mathrm{avg}}=\frac{s_{\mathrm{tot}}}{t_{\mathrm{tot}}}$$

速度v:

每單位時間位移的變化
(矢量)

平均速度

$$\nu_{\mathrm{avg}}=\frac{s_{\mathrm{tot}}}{t_{\mathrm{tot}}}$$

unit: ms-1單位:ms-1

Average speed 平均速率

Common mistakes

Average speed

Use the total distance travelled and total time of travel to calculate the average speed.

利用總行走距離和總時間,來計算平均速率。

Acceleration 加速度

change in v per unit time (vector)

每單位時間速度的變化(矢量)

a=\frac{v-u}t

unit: ms-2單位:ms-2

**注意

An object changing its direction of motion has acceleration.

物體改變運動方向時具有加速度。

Vectors in one dimension 一維運動中的矢量

use + and − signs to represent the directions of vectors

可用正號及負號表示矢量的方向

Vectors in one dimension

Motion graphs 運動線圖

黃金定律:

Motion graphs
Motion graphs

Equations of uniformly accelerated motion

勻加速運動方程

$$s=\nu_\text{avg}t=\left(\frac{u+\nu}2\right)t$$

$$v=u+at$$

$$s=ut+\frac12at^2$$

$$v^2-u^2=2as$$

Typical types of linear motion
典型線性運動例子

uniform motion 勻速運動

uniform motion
uniform motion

uniformly accelerated motion 勻加速運動

uniformly accelerated motion
uniformly accelerated motion

vertical motion under gravity 重力下的垂直運動

vertical motion under gravity

Common mistakes

Acceleration in vertical motion under gravity

The acceleration of an object in vertical motion under gravity is constant. It is the velocity that changes during the motion.

在重力下的垂直運動中,物體的加速度不變。速度在運動中不斷改變。

Time to reach the ground 着地所需時間

Time to reach the ground

Objects with different mass take the same time to reach the ground in the absence of air resistance.

沒有空氣阻力時,物體即使質量不同,均會同時着地。

Chapter 6 Force

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Force

Force 力是什麼

Force是物體之間相互作用的結果,它是一種能夠改變物體運動狀態或形狀的物理量。根據牛頓力學,力可以描述為對物體施加的推力或拉力,它的大小通常用牛頓(N)作為單位。

Force

Weight 重量

Weight (W)是一種衡量物體對於地球或其他天體受到的重力作用的物理量。它是由於地球的引力或其他天體的引力對物體產生的力所導致的。

W = mg

它與物體的質量有關。質量是描述物體內在物質量的特性,通常用 kg 作為單位。在地球上,物體的重量可以通過質量與地球的重力加速度相乘來計算。地球的重力加速度約為9.81米每秒的平方(ms-2)。

Mass and weight 質量與重量

  • mass: property of an object; does not depend on where it is
    質量是物體的特性,並不受物體所在位置影響
  • weight: force acting on the object; depends on where it is
    重量是作用在物體上的力,受物體所在位置影響

Normal reaction force 法向反作用力

Normal reaction force 是一種對於物體表面施加的垂直於表面的力。當物體與其他物體或表面接觸時,法向反作用力是由於物體表面的分子間相互作用而產生的。

例如,當您站在地面上時,地面對於您施加一個向上的 Normal reaction force,這使得您能夠保持站立並不穿透地面。

同樣地,當一本書放在桌子上時,桌子對於書施加一個向上的 Normal reaction force,以抵抗書受到重力的作用而不被穿透桌面。

Tension 張力

Tension是拉緊的繩子或鏈子作用在物體上的拉力

Friction 摩擦力

Friction是一種物體表面之間相互接觸時產生的力,它阻礙物體相對運動或相對滑動的趨勢。摩擦力的存在是由於表面之間微觀不平整度的相互作用。

applied F = f < fmax, no relative motion 沒有相對運動

applied F ≥ fmax, with relative motion 有相對運動

Net force 淨力

Net force

sum of all the forces acting on the object

所有作用在同一物體上的力之和

Newton’s first law 牛頓運動第一定律

Newton’s first law
  • an object will remain at rest or in uniform motion if the net F on it is zero
    若作用在物體上的淨力為零,該物體會保持靜止或繼續以勻速運動
  • inertia: tendency of an object to remain at rest or in uniform motion
    慣性:物體保持靜止,或繼續以勻速運動的傾向

Newton’s second law 牛頓運動第二定律

Newton’s second law

根據牛頓運動第二定律,當一個物體受到外力作用時,它的加速度與作用在物體上的力成正比,與物體的質量成反比。這可以用以下數學公式表示:

Fnet = m * a

其中,F代表作用在物體上的net force,m代表物體的mass,a代表物體的acceleration。

Newton’s third law 牛頓運動第三定律

Newton’s third law

根據牛頓運動第三定律,當一個物體對另一個物體施加力時,第二個物體將對第一個物體施加大小相等、方向相反的反作用力。簡單來說,對於任何一個力的作用,必然會存在一個大小相等、方向相反的力作用在另一個物體上。

F₁₂ = -F₂₁

其中,F₁₂表示物體1對物體2的作用力,F₂₁表示物體2對物體1的反作用力。這兩個力的大小相等,方向相反。

action–reaction pair

An action–reaction pair must

  • have the same magnitude
  • act in opposite direction
  • act on two different objects

一組作用力反作用力對必定

  • 大小相同
  • 方向相反
  • 作用在兩個不同的物體上

Common mistakes:Weight and normal reaction on an object

Weight and normal reaction

The weight and normal reaction acting on an object do not form an action–reaction pair.

作用在物體上的重力(重量)和法向反作用力,並非作用力反作用力對。

Common mistakes:‘Cancellation’ of action–reaction pair

action–reaction pair

An action force and its reaction force act on different objects, and hence they never cancel out each other.

An action force and its reaction force act on different objects, and hence they never cancel out each other.

Free-body diagram 隔離體圖

Free-body diagram

use a big dot to represent the object when finding the net force

求淨力時,可把整個物體看成一 個質點

**注意

畫Free-body diagram 只能針對一件物件

Apparent weight 表觀重量

measures the supporting force (e.g. normal reaction R), but not the weight mg itself

量度物體所受的承托力( 如法向反作用力 R ),而非重量 mg 本身

因此我們一直感受到的不是我們的Weight,而是由地面作用的Normal Reaction Force。

例子:Lift

最經典的例子莫過於Lift。

Apparent weight

Air resistance and terminal velocity
空氣阻力與終端速度

最經典的例子莫過於跳傘活動。

Air resistance and terminal velocity

Air resistance 空氣阻力是物體在運動中由於空氣分子碰撞而產生的阻礙力。當一個物體在空氣中運動時,空氣分子會與物體表面碰撞,產生一個與物體運動方向相反的阻力。

空氣阻力的大小取決於物體的形狀、速度和物體與空氣之間的交互作用面積。對於較小且流線型的物體,空氣阻力相對較小;對於較大或具有不流線型的物體,空氣阻力則較大。

Terminal velocity 終端速度是指當一個物體在下墜或受到重力作用時,物體的加速度逐漸減小,直到達到一個恆定的速度。這是因為當物體下墜時,空氣阻力也會增加,與重力的大小相等並且方向相反。當物體的重力與空氣阻力相等時,物體將達到終端速度。

當物體達到終端速度時,其速度不再增加,因為重力和空氣阻力平衡。這表示物體在下墜過程中達到了一種平衡狀態,其速度保持恆定。終端速度的大小取決於物體的質量、形狀和空氣的密度。

Chapter 7 More about Force

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More about Force

More about Force 與上一課有什麼差距

Chapter 6 Force 主要是讓同學認識力是什麼,包括:Newton’s Law of Motion, Net force等。而Chapter 7 More about Force 就會開始處理二維的力問題,對x, y方向各用F = ma。而且題目也不只一件物件,可能有兩至三件物件連在一起。

resolution of vectors 矢量分解法

resolution of vectors

resolution of vectors 俗稱 拆force 就是把一個Force vector拆成兩個較細的Force vector,這兩支vector會互相垂直。

在DSE中,考生基本上可以用三角學拆 Force。根據θ的位置,Fx Fy的數值會不同。不過,必然是一個sinθ,另一個cosθ。

At equilibrium 靜止與勻速

在equilibrium時,x direction及 y direction的 net force 都會等於0。

首先定好xy軸,然後把不是平行於xy軸的force拆成兩個force。其中一個平行於x軸,另一個平行於y軸。

然後分x, y方向計算net force。

xy軸在正中方向

At equilibrium

xy軸不在正中方向

xy軸是任由考生定的,因此有時歪的xy軸對我們更有利

At equilibrium

Accelerating 正在加速

Accelerating即是有net force。

如果物體正在加速,我們拆force要小心一點。最普遍的做法就是將x或y軸平行於acceleration,然後x, y方向各自計算net force。其中一個方向的net force會=0。

Accelerating

如果不這樣放置xy軸,那麼兩個方向都會有net force,小心處理!

Common mistakes

Directions to resolve forces

Consider the direction of the acceleration a before choosing the directions to resolve forces.

先考慮加速度 a 指向何處,然後以該方向將力分解。

Two-object systems 兩個物體組成的系統

DSE有幾個很喜歡考的系統,包括:in chain 相連、with pulley 滑輪、stack 疊高等。

解題方向大致相同:

  • 注意兩件物件acceleration的關係
  • 各自考慮每一件物件
  • 再考慮整個系統

in chain 相連

in chain

這種系統由兩個物體組成,透過鏈條互相連接,鏈條作為傳遞力量的媒介。鏈條所產生的tension影響著系統中物體的行為和運動。

in chain 通常都會使兩件物件有相同的acceleration。

舉個例子來說,如果你將兩個不同質量的物體透過一條鏈相連,並對其中一個物體施加一個力,鏈條的tension將使另一個物體產生一個反作用力。這可能導致物體以協調的方式移動。

Common mistakes

Tension in a string

The tensions at the ends of a string are not an action–reaction pair, though they are equal and opposite.

雖然繩子兩端的張力量值相同、方向相反,但是兩者並非一組作用力反作用力對。

with pulley 滑輪

with pulley

在滑輪系統中,兩個物體組成的系統透過一個或多個滑輪相連。滑輪的作用是改變力的方向或大小,同時提供一個支撐點,使得系統中的物體可以運動。

with pulley 通常都會使兩件物件有相同的 acceleration magnitude, 不同 acceleration direction。

在滑輪系統中,當你施加力量或施加力矩於一個物體上,滑輪會轉動,從而產生張力。這個張力會傳遞到與之相連的物體上,影響其運動。

stack 疊高

stack

兩個物體組成的系統在疊高的情況下,意味著將兩個物體堆疊在一起,形成一個垂直的結構。

在這種系統中,物體的組成和質量分佈對於系統的穩定性和平衡非常重要。當你將一個物體放在另一個物體上時,重力會作用在系統的下方物體上,並產生壓力。這種壓力會對下方物體施加一個向下的力。

stack的關鍵在於兩件物件之間有沒有friction。如果是smooth surface,那麼就算我推下面的物件,上面的物件也不會動。相反,friction足夠時就會兩件一起移動。

另一個關鍵在於friction的action-and-reaction pair。其中一個friction會帶動上面的物件移動,另一個一個friction會阻礙下面的物件移動

Moment of a force 力矩

Moment

力矩(Moment of a force)是物理學中描述力對物體產生轉動效應的量度。它是由力的大小和作用點到旋轉軸的距離共同決定的。

假設 Take moment about一點,然後有一個力F作用在物體上,該力與那一點之間的距離為d,則力矩M可以表示為以下公式:M = F × d,units:Nm。

不過,注意F vector 與 d vector 要互相垂直!

Principle of moments 力矩原理

no rotation 沒有轉動

在這種情況下,clockwise moment = anti-clockwise moment

rotation 轉動

有轉動時,clockwise moment ≠ anti-clockwise moment

Centre of gravity 重心

Centre of gravity
  • the point where the weight mg acts on
    代表重量 mg 所作用的位置
  • locates at the centre of a uniform object with a regular shape
    均勻對稱物體的重心在其正中心。

Chapter 8 Work Energy and Power

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Work Energy and Power

Work 功 是什麽

功(Work)是指由力對物體進行的能量轉移。當一個力作用在物體上,並且物體沿著力的方向移動時,這個力所做的功就是對物體進行的能量轉移。

功(Work)= 力(Force) × 位移(Displacement) × cosθ

其中,力是作用在物體上的力,位移是物體在力的方向上移動的距離,θ是力向量和位移向量之間的夾角。

如果力的方向與物體的位移方向相同,那麼夾角θ為0度,cosθ的值為1,這時功的值最大。如果力的方向與物體的位移方向垂直,那麼夾角θ為90度,cosθ的值為0,這時功的值為0。

功的單位是焦耳(Joule),國際單位制中的能量單位。

Work Energy and Power

F—s graph

work = area under a F-s graph

功 = F-s 線圖下的面積

Kinetic energy (KE) 動能

KE = energy possessed by a moving object

KE = 運動物體具有的能量

$$\mathrm{KE}=\frac{1}{2}mv^{2}$$

Gravitational potential energy (PE) 重力勢能

PE = energy stored in an object when it is raised against gravity

PE = 物體在重力作用下被提起時,儲存在物體內的能量 

$$\mathrm{PE}=mgh$$

Elastic potential energy 彈性勢能

Elastic potential energy

elastic PE = energy stored in an object when it is stretched, compressed or bent

彈性勢能 = 物體伸展、壓縮或彎曲時所儲存的能量

Conservation of energy 能量守恆守律

Conservation of energy

energy can change from one form to another, but cannot be created or destroyed

能量不能憑空產生或消失,只能由一種形式轉換成另一種形式

Common Mistakes 1

Conservation of energy

The total energy of a system is always conserved, but its mechanical energy does not.

在一個系統中,總能量必定守恆,然示其機械能並不一定守恆。

Common Mistakes 2

Conservation of energy

Always focus on the change in energy when applying the law of conservation of energy.

應用能量守恆定律解題時,著重的是能量的變化。

simple pendulum 單擺

simple pendulum
  • As the bob moves downward from its highest point, its potential energy decreases, and this energy is converted into kinetic energy. The bob gains speed as it moves downward due to the conversion of potential energy into kinetic energy.
  • At the lowest point of the swing, the bob has converted all of its potential energy into kinetic energy, and it has maximum speed.
  • As the bob moves upward from the lowest point, its kinetic energy decreases, and this energy is converted back into potential energy. The bob slows down as it moves upward due to the conversion of kinetic energy into potential energy.
  • At the highest point of the swing, the bob has converted all of its kinetic energy back into potential energy, and it comes to a momentary stop before reversing its motion.

trampoline 彈床

trampoline 彈床
  • As the person comes down, the elastic potential energy stored in the springs is converted back into kinetic energy, propelling them back upward.
  • The trampoline acts as a spring system that transfers energy back to the person, allowing them to bounce higher.
  • This conversion between elastic potential energy and kinetic energy continues with each bounce, resulting in a series of oscillations.

roller coaster 過山車

roller coaster
  • Potential Energy: The first energy conversion occurs when the roller coaster is lifted to its initial height, usually using a chain lift or another mechanism. As the roller coaster ascends, it gains potential energy. The higher the coaster is lifted, the more potential energy it possesses. The potential energy is given by the formula: PE = mgh, where m is the mass of the roller coaster, g is the acceleration due to gravity, and h is the height above a reference point. At the highest point of the ride, the coaster has maximum potential energy.

  • Kinetic Energy: As the roller coaster descends from its highest point, the potential energy is converted into kinetic energy. Kinetic energy is the energy of motion and is given by the formula: KE = (1/2)mv², where m is the mass of the roller coaster and v is its velocity. As the coaster accelerates down the track, its potential energy decreases while its kinetic energy increases. The coaster gains speed and its kinetic energy is at its maximum at the lowest point of the ride.

  • Conservation of Energy: Throughout the roller coaster ride, the total mechanical energy (potential energy + kinetic energy) remains constant neglecting any energy losses due to friction or air resistance. This is known as the principle of conservation of energy. As the coaster moves along the track, energy is continuously converted back and forth between potential and kinetic forms. For example, as the coaster moves up a subsequent hill, its kinetic energy decreases, and potential energy increases. The energy conversions allow the roller coaster to continue its motion along the track.

diver 跳水運動員

diver
  • Potential Energy: When the diver is standing on the diving board, they have potential energy due to their position above the water. This potential energy is gravitational and is given by the formula: PE = mgh, where m is the mass of the diver, g is the acceleration due to gravity, and h is the vertical height of the diver above the water surface. As the diver jumps or dives, their potential energy decreases.

  • Kinetic Energy: As the diver leaves the diving board and descends towards the water, their potential energy is converted into kinetic energy. Kinetic energy is the energy of motion and is given by the formula: KE = (1/2)mv², where m is the mass of the diver and v is their velocity. The diver gains speed and their kinetic energy increases as they move downward.

  • Air Resistance: During the descent, the diver encounters air resistance. Air resistance acts as a resistive force that opposes the motion and converts some of the diver’s kinetic energy into other forms, such as heat and sound. The amount of energy lost due to air resistance depends on factors such as the diver’s speed, body position, and the shape of their body.

  • Water Entry: As the diver enters the water, there is another energy conversion. The kinetic energy of the diver is converted into several forms:

    a. Wave Energy: When the diver enters the water, they displace water and create waves. The kinetic energy of the diver is partially converted into the energy of these waves, propagating outward from the entry point.

    b. Sound Energy: The entry of the diver into the water also generates sound waves. Some of the kinetic energy is converted into sound energy, which is transmitted through the water as pressure waves.

    c. Water Resistance: The water exerts a resistive force on the diver as they move through it. This resistance converts some of the diver’s kinetic energy into heat due to friction between the diver’s body and the water molecules.

Power 功率

P = rate of energy transfer

P = 能量的轉移率

$$P=\frac Et=\frac Wt$$

unit: W or Js−1

$$P=Fv$$

Average power of a vehicle

Power

Use P = F v to calculate the average power of a vehicle only when the velocity v of the vehicle is constant.

只有當車子的速度 v 為定值時,才可利用 P = F v 計算車子的平均功率。

Chapter 9 Momentum

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Momentum

Momentum 動量 是什麽

動量(momentum)是物體運動的一個重要性質,描述了物體運動的速度和質量之間的關係。它是物體質量乘以其速度的乘積,可以用數學公式表示為:

動量(p)= 質量(m) × 速度(v)

動量的單位通常使用千克·米/秒(kg·m/s)或牛頓·秒(N·s)。

momentum

Newton’s second law and momentum
牛頓運動第二定律與動量

net F = rate of change in momentum

淨力 = 動量的變化率

$$F=ma=m\Big(\frac{v-u}t\Big)=\frac{mv-mu}t$$

Change in momentum 動量變化

Change in momentum
Change in momentum

change in momentum (impulse) = impact force F × collision time t

動量變化( 衝量)= 碰撞力 F × 碰撞時間 t

$$\Delta p=mv-mu=Ft$$

$$unit:Ns\text{ or }kgms^{-1}$$

Change in momentum

$$\begin{aligned}&\text{collision time }t\uparrow\\&\Rightarrow\text{impact force }F\downarrow\end{aligned}$$

Conservation of momentum (1-D) 動量守恆( 一維 )

total momentum before collision = total momentum after collision

碰撞 前的總動量 = 碰撞 後的總動量

$$m_A\boldsymbol{u_A}+m_B\boldsymbol{u_B}=m_A\boldsymbol{v_A}+m_B\boldsymbol{v_B}$$

Conservation of momentum Example 動量守恆例子

Conservation of momentum

$$\begin{aligned}
&totalmomentumconserved \\
&\mathrm{initial~}p=(4)(2)+(3)(-2)=2\mathrm{kgms^{-}} \\
&\mathrm{final}p=(4)(-1)+(3)(2)=2\mathrm{kg}\mathrm{m}\mathrm{s}^{-1}
\end{aligned}$$

Types of collision 碰撞種類

Collision Type碰撞種類Momentum Conservation (總動量守恆)KE Conservation (總動能守恆)
Elastic Collision彈性碰撞YesYes
Inelastic Collision非彈性碰撞YesNo
Perfectly Inelastic Collision完全非彈性碰撞YesNo (max. loss in KE)
Explosion爆發Yes (initial p = final p = 0)No (initial KE = 0, final KE > 0)

elastic collision 彈性碰撞

elastic collision
  • total momentum conserved
    總動量守恆
  • total KE conserved
    總動能守恆

inelastic collision 非彈性碰撞

inelastic collision
  • total momentum conserved
    總動量守恆
  • total KE not conserved
    總動能不守恆

perfectly inelastic collision 完全非彈性碰撞

perfectly inelastic collision
  • total momentum conserved
    總動量守恆
  • total KE not conserved (max. loss in KE) 
    總動能不守恆( 動能損失最大 ) 

explosion 爆發

explosion

total momentum conserved (initial p= final p= 0)
總動量守恆( 初動量 = 終動量 = 0 ) 

total KE not conserved (initial KE =0, final KE >0)
總動能不守恆( 初動能 = 0,終動能 > 0 )

Newton’s third law and momentum 牛頓運動第三定律與動量

Newton’s third law and momentum

Apparent loss of momentum 「 消失 」的動量

momentum

The momentum of the ball alone is not conserved because there is an external force from the wall acting on it
單考慮球本身,由於牆壁對其施外力,因此其動量並不守恆。

The total momentum of the ball and wall is conserved because no external force acts on this system.
若把球和牆壁一併考慮,由於沒有外力作用在此系統中,因此兩者總動量守恆。

Chapter 10 Projectile Motion

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Projectile Motion

Projectile Motion 拋體運動是什麽

拋體運動(Projectile Motion)是指物體在只受到重力作用下以一定的初速度被拋出,沿著抛物線軌跡運動的現象。在拋體運動中,物體在水平方向和垂直方向上的運動是分開的。

拋體運動的特點是物體在水平方向上具有匀速直線運動,而在垂直方向上受到重力的影響而產生匀加速度運動。這是因為在水平方向上,物體沒有受到其他外力的作用,只有初速度的影響,因此保持匀速直線運動。而在垂直方向上,物體受到重力的垂直向下作用,產生匀加速度運動(重力加速度)。

Projectile Motion

Resolving into two independent motions
分解為兩種獨立運動

Projectile Motion

Calculating projectile motion 拋體運動的計算

計算拋體運動涉及到求解物體在水平和垂直方向上的運動。

horizontal (constant vx ) 水平方向(勻速度 vx)

Projectile Motion Horizontal

$$\begin{array}{c}x=u_xt\\\\v_x=u_x\end{array}$$

vertical (constant ax = −g ) 垂直方向( 勻加速度 ay = −g )

Projectile Motion Vertical

$$y=u_{y}t+(-g)t^{2}\\v_{y}=u_{y}+(-g)t$$

KE and PE in projectile motion 拋體運動中的動能與勢能

KE and PE in projectile motion
  • conservation of energy:
    能量守恆:
  • loss in KE = gain in PE
    損失的動能 = 增加的勢能

Projectile motion on horizontal ground 水平面上的拋體運動

time of flight 飛行時間 T

time of flight

\begin{aligned}&\text{time of flight T}\\&0=u_{y}+(-g)\left(\frac{T}{2}\right)\\&\Rightarrow u_{y}=g\left(\frac{T}{2}\right)\end{aligned}

maximum height 最大高度 H

maximum height

$$\begin{gathered}
\text{maximum height H} \\
0-{u_{y}}^{2}=2(-g)H \\
\Rightarrow{u_{y}}^{2}=2gH
\end{gathered}$$

range 射程 R

range

$$\begin{aligned}
&\text{range R} \\
& R=u_{x}T\quad\mathrm{and}\quad u_{y}=g\left(\frac{T}{2}\right) \\
&\Rightarrow R=\frac{2u_{x}u_{y}}{g} \\
&\max.R\mathrm{when}\theta=45^{\circ}
\end{aligned}$$

Free-falling with horizontal velocity 帶有水平速度的自由落體

Free-falling with horizontal velocity

A free-falling object with initial horizontal velocity falls along a parabolic path.

若自由落體的初始水平速度不等於零,則會循拋物線下墜。

Force acting on a projectile 作用在拋體上的力

Force acting on a projectile

The impact force F has no effect after the projection. The projectile in mid-air is acted on by its weight only.

在發生碰撞後,碰撞力 F 不會繼續影響拋體。在半空中,拋體只受其重量影響。

Inertia on falling objects 下墜物體的慣性

Inertia on falling objects

When objects are released from a moving plane, they move with the same horizontal speed as the plane does due to inertia.

當物體從運動中的飛機釋放時,物體由於具有慣性,因此會以相同的水平速率移動。

Chapter 11 Uniform Circular Motion

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Uniform Circular Motion

Uniform Circular Motion 勻速圓周運動是什麽

Uniform Circular Motion 圓周運動是物體在一個固定半徑的圓周軌道上運動的運動形式。在圓周運動中,物體以恆定的速度沿著圓周軌道運動,並且保持著相同的半徑。這種運動往往由一個力或力的組合提供,稱為向心力。

在圓周運動中,物體的速度方向始終指向圓周的切線方向,而向心力則指向圓心,使物體保持在軌道上。

Uniform Circular Motion

Angular displacement θ 角位移 θ

θ = angle through which an object turns (vector)
θ = 物體所轉過的角度( 向量 )

$$\theta=\frac sr$$

unit: rad

clockwise or anticlockwise
方向為順時針或逆時針

$$\theta(\text{in rad})=\pi\times\frac{x^\circ}{180^\circ}$$

Cycle vs Degree vs Radian

CycleDegreeRadian
000
130π/6
245π/4
360π/3
490π/2
5180π
63602π

Angular velocity ω 角速度 ω

Angular velocity
  • ω = change in angular displacement per unit time (vector)
    ω = 每單位時間角位移的變化( 向量 )
  • $$\omega=\frac\theta t$$
  • unit: rad s-1 or s-1
  • clockwise or anticlockwise
    方向為順時針或逆時針
  • period T = time for 1 cycle
    週期 T = 旋轉一周所需時間
  • $$\omega=\frac{2\pi}T$$
  • $$\omega=\frac{v}{r}$$

Centripetal acceleration a 向心加速度 a

a = change in angular velocity per unit time (vector)
a = 每單位時間角速度的變化( 向量 )

$$a=\frac\omega t$$

unit: rad s-2/s-2

clockwise or anticlockwise
方向為順時針或逆時針

$$a=\frac{v^2}r=r\omega^2$$

Centripetal force F 向心力 F

F = net force pointing to the centre of the circular path
F = 指向圓形路徑中心的淨力

$$F=ma=\frac{mv^2}{r}=mr\omega^2$$

Uniform circular motion 勻速圓周運動

ParameterMagnitudeDirection
v (tangential)ConstantChanging
a (centripetal)ConstantChanging
F (centripetal)ConstantChanging

Net force for uniform circular motion
勻速圓周運動所需的淨力

Net force for uniform circular motion

The net force is centripetal, not tangential.

淨力指向圓形路徑的 中心,而非切線。

Free-body diagram 隔離體圖

centripetal force

Never draw the centripetal force on a free-body diagram.

切勿在隔離體圖上標示「 向心力 」。

沒有一種力是向心力,只有某種力成爲centripetal force

When the string breaks 當繩子突然斷開時

tangential velocity

Once the centripetal force (i.e. net force) is removed, the object moves in a straight line (∵ Newton’s 1st law).

向心力( 即物體所受的淨力 )一旦消失,物體會沿直線移動( ∵ 牛頓運動第一定律 )。

Chapter 12 Gravitation

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Gravitation

Gravitational force 引力是什麽

引力是一種物理力,它是由於物體之間的質量而產生的相互吸引力。 根據萬有引力定律,任何兩個物體之間都存在引力,其大小與兩個物體的質量成正比,與它們之間的距離的平方成反比。 引力是一種非常基本的力,它對宇宙中的物體的運動和結構起著重要作用。

根據引力定律,如果兩個物體的質量增加,它們之間的引力也會增加。 同樣,如果它們之間的距離減小,引力也會增加。 這意味著較大質量的物體之間的引力更強,同時距離更近的物體之間的引力也更強。

Gravitation

Law of universal gravitation 牛頓萬有引力定律

grav. F = attractive force between any two objects

引力 = 任何兩個物體之間的吸引力

universal gravitational constant 引力常數

$$F=\frac{GMm}{r^2}$$

$$G=6.67\times10^{-11}\mathrm{N}\mathrm{m}^2\mathrm{kg}^{-2}$$

Gravitational field strength g 引力場強度 g

Gravitational field strength

g = gravitational force experienced by a unit mass in a region

g = 每單位質量的物體在某處所受的引力

$$g=\frac{F}{m}=\frac{GM}{r^2}$$

unit: N kg-1

gravitational force 的另一種理解方式解釋引力所造成的加速度。從單位而言,N kg-1 與ms-2 是相同的

Circular motion under gravity 引力下的圓周運動

gravitation 其中一個經典考法就是與uniform circular motion一起考。

grav. F provides the centripetal force

引力提供向心力

$$\frac{GMm}{r^2}=\frac{mv^2}{r}\text{or}\frac{GMm}{r^2}=mr\omega^2$$

Gravitational force Common mistakes

Gravitational force Common mistakes

The gravitational forces exerted by two objects on each other are equal in magnitude as they form an action–reaction pair

兩個物體互相施加於對方的引力,構成作用力反作用力對。因此兩者具有相同量值

Distance from an object 與物體之間的距離

Distance from an object

When applying equations about gravitation to a uniform spherical object, the distance r measures from the centre, not the surface.

運用萬有引力定律的公式於均勻球體時,距離 r 應從該球體的中心而非表面算起。

Acceleration due to gravity 引力加速度

Acceleration due to gravity
  • The acceleration due to gravity (i.e. gravitational field strength) depends on the distance r from the centre of the planet.
    引力加速度( 即引力場強度 )取決於該位置與行星中心的距離 r。
  • Only for the region near the Earth surface is g = 9.81 ms-2
    g = 9.81 ms-2 只適用於接近地球表面的位置

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